Geography 411 - Field Techniques

Field research

• "The systematic observation and collection of otherwise unavailable (primary) data"
• Learning geography by casual observation of landscapes (travel) is analogous to learning chemical compounds by taste, touch, odour and colour. Chemists have more systematic methods for observing, and classifying elements and chemical compounds.
• Most geography is learned vicariously, that is, via other people's experiences. Field work enables direct learning and interpreting of the spatial expression of physical processes as preserved in the landscape.
• Besides enabling the acquisition of primary data, field work also instills a healthy skepticism of secondary data (e.g., weather and hydrometric data, and soil and geology maps).
• Geographical research is increasingly based on secondary data, but most projects involve the integration of primary, secondary and tertiary data. Thus there is considerable overlap between field techniques, remote sensing, GIS, and laboratory techniques.
• Field research has historically always included an element of exploration, but increasingly is focused on the acquisition of unavailable data from otherwise know areas, mostly to address specific problems and hypotheses.

Field experiments

• "an operation designed to discover and establish some principle or natural effect

e.g., draining a periglacial lake, rainfall simulation; experimental control either by human interference or statistical methods

• most geographicall studies are not controlled experiments, in the sense of physical control, but rather systematic sampling, mapping and monitoring with usually some control sites or groups
• there are as many field experiments as there are good questions

Applications of field work to geographical problems

• resource management

• urban and regional planning: regional or site-specific physical characteristics
• natural hazards: mapping of hazardousness or risk (surficial geology, slope stability, flood zones, active surfaces); monitoring of process
• environmental impact assessment and mitigation: evaluation and monitoring of human activities and existing and potential impacts

Careful pre-field planning and preparation are necessary to insure that the data are as accurate, valid and collected efficiently. Testing of surveys and classifications is a good practice. Reconnaissance field work is very effective, if for no other reason than just getting oriented in an unfamiliar study area. The more structured a field study, the better the final results.

The major components of a field research include (Lounsbury and Aldrich, 1986):

1. Clearly stating the problem,
2. Defining the study area
3. Formulating hypotheses
4. Identifying the necessary data
5. Establishing the classification and resolution (scale) of the data
6. Acquiring the data
7. Processing and analyzing the data
8. Resolving the problem and rejecting or accepting the hypotheses

A research problem is a questions that has no satisfactory answers at the time. A clear and concise statement of the question is essential, because the problem determines the scope and nature of the entire research plan, including the location and extent of the study area. For example, if the problem is "How did agricultural land use changed in RM 330 between 1975 and 1990?", the study area is given. If, on the other hand ,the problem is to determine how snow cover changes with altitude, the study area is not predetermined but rather must be defined to include significant topography and relief.

The size of the study area also depends on the types and classification of the phenomena studied, and the scale of observation and measurement. The study area is the geographic framework within which the field work is conducted, and thus its exact areal extent must be determined to focus and further define the purposes of the research. The rationale for selecting a particular research area and its extent should be documented clearly.

Most field studies have one or more stated hypotheses. An hypothesis is an assumption, educated guess, or supposition as to the outcome of the completed research, based on some factual knowledge of the problem and research area. It further defines the research problem and must be stated such that it can be supported or rejected by the data.  If little or no information exists about the problem, then the field research is more exploratory in nature and there may be no reasonable hypotheses or assumptions. In this case, the hypothesis may be implied in a statement of the problem and objectives.

If the problem, research area (sampling frame), and hypotheses are soundly derived and clearly stated, the types of data needed will be self-evident. The efficient and systematic collection of field data then depends on classification system(s) based on meaningful criteria that enable precisely defined classes. Developing a classification requires a pre-field study of existing systems, a reconnaissance of the research area, and / or testing and refining on the basis of pilot studies. Classification systems already exist for many phenomena (e.g., soils, slopes). These can be applied directly or in a modified form. The classification systems, scale of the map base, and detail of the observations and recordings (including the minimal areal unit) are interrelated.

Means of acquiring field data:

1. Mapping and sampling observable features and earth materials
2. Using instruments to monitor and measure processes
3. Interviewing to obtain information about the nonvisible aspects of the area

Data collection (sampling) involves a choice or compromise between few observations at many sites versus detailed observations at many fewer locations. The extent (coverage) and intensity will depends on the nature of a specific problem, the degree of accuracy required, the type of data and instrumentation, and size of the study area. Nearly always, total coverage by mapping or interviewing is not possible and sampling procedures are employed. Sampling is always necessary when the there is essentially an infinite population of phenomena under study (e.g., soil or water samples, air temperatures, slope profiles). This includes the use of instruments to monitor selected sites. The sampling framing and selection of observation sites are important considerations, as they will determine the degree to which the sample of data is representation of the population.

The focus of field research is the systematic acquisition of field data. These data are then analyzed in the same manner as the results of any kind of research project; there are no special or unique methods of analysis. The purpose of any data analysis is to test hypotheses and, in general, answer the question raised in the statement of the problem. With all research, the answers to the questions may not be those that were anticipated, or the questions may remain unresolved. The value, quality and validity of the research, however, are a function of the research design, methodology and techniques. If these are sound, any and all results are valuable. "In the final analysis, the success of a research problem is judged on the manner in which it was carried out rather than on whether the conclusions were positive, negative, or inconclusive." (Lounsbury and Aldrich, 1986)